The first population survey (population sample 1) was carried out in 2009 and consisted of randomly sampled respondents 18 years of age and older who were interviewed via computer-assisted personal interviews or self-administered interviews (paper and pencil or web interviews). If they do not apply however, they are excluded from their society. Assuming this evaluation process, the justice evaluation stated in Equations (1) and (2) contains three types of characteristics: categorical variables, abilities and inputs. ^The theory is based on the research of Adams (1965), Homans (1974), Berger et al. People who are embedded in a social structure that is highly gender unequal likely compare rewardees to generalized others (i.e., a typical female or male employee) that reproduce these inequalities. Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? Am. Quick Facts About the Gender Wage Gap - Center for Due to a life course perspective, gender differences in income are analyzed over a period of 24 years. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. The objective of these pretests is to test new modules and modifications of questions. 35, 382409. Rev. KZfSS Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 63, 3359. Jann, B. Stratificat. Hypothesis 2. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. The actuality is that our society wants to gender inequality. Under the structural condition of resource equality, it is likely that gender has no status value; therefore, gender is unimportant for the evaluation process. 66, 125145. Gender studies (1972). The just earnings depend on the levels of characteristics observers perceive as important. The status value attached to male recipients reproduces gender inequalities in justice judgments of men and women. Sociology of justice, in Handbook of Social Justice Theory and Research, eds C. Sabbagh and M. Schmitt (New York, NY: Springer), 3759. One must bear in mind that the vignettes in the student sample and population sample 1 were designed equally, so differences can be attributed to rating behavior and not to design elements. The findings indicate that actual inequalities between men and women influence the gender bias in justice evaluations. Verdienstunterschiede zwischen Mnnern und Frauen. Conflict Theory on Education Therefore, their approach is normative in that it prescribes changes to the power structure, advocating a balance of power between genders. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. WebConflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. College Station, TX: Stata Press. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. With respect to this feature, factorial surveys have an advantage over justice measures of individuals' own earnings, as gender can be modeled as uncorrelated with other recipient's characteristics, e.g., occupational status and gross earnings, which are correlated in the real world. Although conflict theory eventually evolves into the contemporary conflict theory, this theory truly explains the issue with our society. The regression Equation (4) displays the models with an attached intercept (0), a respondent-specific residual (i) and an error term iv. On the issue of #MeToo would look at the balance of power and how men are much more often in authority positions that allow for such abuse to occur and go unchallenged (this is According to the Institute for Womens Policy Research, from 2019 to 2020, the gender wage gap narrowed from 18.5% to 17.7%. Soc. As is standard in the gender wage gap literature on transition countries, adjusted gender wage gaps are greater than raw gaps. A new theory of distributive justice. It is only through the breaking of these gender roles and conventions - from both men being willing to defer to the wills of women and women having the strength of deviate from their given roles and demanding better treatment, that these toxic definitions of masculinity and femininity can be, Once women began entering the working world an issue arose from the gender based wages. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. Along with the theoretical framework, presented is a College Station, TX: StataCorp LP. Models 5 and 6 show the coefficients for population sample 2. pay Available online at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, Foschi, M. (2000). doi: 10.1177/1536867X0700700207. The status value is not an intrinsic feature of a characteristic (in this case, gender) but attached to the characteristic by generally shared beliefs. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. While fighting over control of these resources, these groups and individuals develop their own interests. These referential structures are general relations between a person's states of characteristics (in this case, male or female) and respective rewards (earnings) that are activated in justice evaluations. Status Characteristics and Social Interaction: An Expectation States Approach. Soc. This pay gap means women have communities and our nation. Is Gender Socially Constructed? doi: 10.2307/2094561, Jasso, G., Shelly, R., and Webster, M. (2019). Ganzeboom, H. B. G., and Treiman, D. J. As one can tell the two sides of the matter are whether or not women deserve the pay. Women and Negotiation: Narrowing the Gender Gap Conflict Theory and its implication on education. gap Rev. Conflict Theory on Gender Wage Inequality Essay | Cram Its Elementary Forms. Thus, there exist remarkable differences between federal states with the strongest divide between federal states located in the eastern and western parts of Germany. Soc. Just. Intersectionality - The Feminist Perspective, 29. Res. Figure 3. This research has limitations. 5:22. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00022. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Further notes on the theory of distributive justice. WebFeminists argue that this erases the categories of gender altogether but does nothing to antagonize the power dynamics reified by gender. In 2021, female employees aged 25 to 54 earned $3.79 (11.1%) less per hour, on average, than their male counterparts. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2011.12.004, Markovsky, B. Soc. The population sample 2 is available for registered users at the Socio-economic panel (SOEP) at the German Institute of Economic Research (DIW). Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. Following justice evaluation theory, in justice evaluation processes, people compare actual rewards to rewards perceived as just or fair (Jasso, 1978, 1980, 1986)1. Ducharme, J. Moreover, the student sample used in this study revealed no gender differences in study success (meanm = 1.26; meanf = 1.15; T = 1.27; p = 0.20; nm = 697;nf = 998) measured via self-assessment on an eleven-point rating scale (5 to +5). The gender wage gap 101: The basics - Economic Policy Institute Moreover, student samples and general samples do not only differ by the structural conditions in which respondents are embedded. The men try to remain the dominant group in order to maintain the already established social order. On the other hand, the tests between the student sample and population sample 1 (2 = 37.18;p < 0.001) as well as population sample 2 (2 = 49.61;p < 0.001) revealed significant differences. The actual rewards (gross earnings) are directly given, while the just gross earnings are a hypothetical value observers regard as just for given recipients. Therefore, this context variable is useful to compare how the gender of the recipient influences justice evaluations of observers living in different federal states. Res. In the first. Gap doi: 10.1086/226826. Soc. proletariat the working class or lower class, dominant group a sociological category that holds the majority of authority and power over other social groups. Bad Ems: Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz. Gender Gap Theory Attention is placed on class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the most important bases and long-term struggles in society., Whether we like it or not, history is repeating itself. Why should women get less? 5. Non-reflexive judgments are, therefore, well suited to investigate justice attitudes and unconscious gender bias in judgments [for a review of the research on non-reflexive justice attitudes using factorial surveys, see Liebig et al. The third model in Table 6 provides the coefficients for population sample 2. Rev. Gender Wage Gap Sociol. This can be written in a formal equation as follows: The term C in Equation (1) is now replaced by characteristics that might be relevant for the justice evaluation, including gender. Moreover, it shows again high consistency of evaluations of the population samples. If they rated the income as unjust, respondents judged in a second step whether the income was too high or too low. The Gender Wage Gap: Causes, Consequences, and WebThe unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. University students' perceptions of gender discrimination in the workplace: reality versus fiction. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2, Adriaans, J, Sauer, C., and Wrohlich, K. (2020). Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. In other words, the fact that gender is socially constructed does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders. This possibility was introduced in the description of the vignette task immediately before the first vignette. The interaction effect in Model 4 is insignificant, meaning that male and female respondents both produced to the same extent a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients in their evaluations. The outcome variable in the following regression models is the z-standardized justice evaluation per vignette. The respondents in the population samples were sampled in different regions in Germany with differing degrees of earnings inequality between men and women. (2008). Their interviews were not used because they did not fulfill the requirements. The gender pay gap can be measured in three key ways: by hourly earnings, weekly earnings, and annual income. Be sure that. Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. (1996). Berger, J., Fisek, H. M., Norman, R. Z., and Zelditch, M. J. This evaluation behavior was measured for male and female full-time working observers in both population samples. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. I thank Stefan Liebig, Peter Valet, and Murray Webster Jr. as well as Guillermina Jasso and the two reviewers for critical comments and helpful suggestions. Accounting for the sources of the level and changes in the gender pay gap will provide guidance for understanding recent research studying gender and the labor market. Copyright 2020 Sauer. doi: 10.1111/ecin.12060, Dlmer, H. (2007). This study investigates the gender bias in justice evaluations by linking it to the inequality structure in which people are embedded. Note that alternative estimation with maximum-likelihood estimators leads to the same results. Both raw and adjusted gender wage gap estimates are highly dispersed in our sample, with values ranging from almost nil to as much as 95% of men wages. Surv. 50, 822839. Compared to white, non-Hispanic men, the pay gap for Black women was 38% and 46% for Latinas. Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1997). The U.S gender pay gap in the 1990: slowing convergence. Statistical Software. The gender wage gap has narrowed over the years, but women still earned about 84 cents for every dollar that men earned in 2021, which is not statistically different from 2020. To test the robustness of the results of the models presented above, Table 9 shows the pooled analysis of the differences between the student and the population samples with restricted samples. We place gender specific roles on male and female because our long history of men dominating cant be easily replaced. Friedrich Engels, a Germansociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from aMarxistperspective. Social institutions change and shift over time, affecting other social institutions and society as a whole. The interaction effect is significantly negative, meaning that the rating behavior of male and female students differed with respect to the gender of the vignette person. A new representation of the just term in distributive-justice theory: its properties and operation in theoretical derivation and empirical estimation. In federal states located in West Germany (Schleswig-Holstein to Saarland) the gap varied between 18 percent and 28 percent, while in East Germany, the gap varied between 1 and 18% (Berlin included). Discovering the mechanisms behind why people perceive certain income levels to be appropriate or fair for male and female employees sheds light on these processes. Methodenbericht. In reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate their own rewards (observer = recipient); in non-reflexive justice evaluations, people evaluate the rewards of others (observerrecipient). The difference is that in the previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1999), male and female students showed a tendency to favor female recipients. doi: 10.1037/bul0000135. While students are undoubtedly socialized in a gender-unequal society and gender inequalities also exist at universities, the gender bias based on daily experiences should at least be lower than in other subpopulations. Jasso and Webster (1999) interpreted this finding in comparison to their previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1997) as a possible consequence of changing actual gender pay gaps over time. Identify which perspectives use a macrolevel or a microlevel of analysis. While certaingender rolesmay have been appropriate in ahunter-gatherersociety, conflict theorists argue that the only reason these roles persist is because the dominant group naturally works to maintain their power andstatus. Students evaluated the justice of earnings of the vignette persons without a focus on whether the described person was male or female. Gender pay gap 20062018, in WSI GenderDatenPortal. University of Maryland, University College, Sociological Research on Gender Pay Gap.docx, Social Problems Of Poverty and Inequality.edited.docx, Assignment 2 - Sociological Imagination and the Future of Work/Education. Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. Equation (4) was used to estimate the three models presented in Table 6. In all cases, researchers compare median earnings for women versus men. 46, 227241. doi: 10.2307/2095239, Jasso, G. (1981). The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. There exist regional differences in the gender pay gap. The status value theory of distributive justice (Berger et al., 1972) and the justice evaluation theory (Jasso, 1978) highlight the importance of comparison processes within distributive justice judgements that rely on referential structures. Stata: Release 12. Other factorial survey studies also found a gender gap in ratings (Jasso and Rossi, 1977; Alves and Rossi, 1978; Shepelak and Alwin, 1986; Jann, 2008; Adriaans et al., 2020). In the years 2008 and 2009, when the surveys of this study were conducted, the unadjusted gender pay gap of monthly median earnings in Germany was approximately 21% (see Table 5). Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. (2011). Thus. ^In the computer-assisted personal interviews, additional information was collected about the interviewer, e.g., work experience and training attendance, and the interview situations in interviewer questionnaires after each interview. 25, 201239. But what do they signify? For decades now, working women are getting paid less than men. Making regression tables simplified. doi: 10.1007/s11211-013-0182-2, Schomaker, C. (2010a). 42, 639651. 1.) 51, 3046. Front. SOEPpaper No. Indust. Stata J. Talking about men, it is clearly seen that in todays world they held dominant and much higher positions than women. In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. 144, 198222. If these characteristics have a status value, they can be defined as status characteristics (Berger et al., 1977). Within Germany, the gender pay gap varies remarkably at the regional level. The justice of earnings in dual-earner households. On the other hand, if gender has no status value in the eyes of the observer, it is not a relevant factor for the justice evaluation. Evidence on the gender pay gap from multifactorial survey experiments. Table 9. On the other hand, the rating task differed between population sample 1 and population sample 2; thus, their similar evaluation patterns indicate reliable results and a robust design. . Evidenz aus einem Vignetten-Experiment, in Erwerbsarbeit, Einkommen und Geschlecht, ed B. Jann (Wiesbaden: VS), 107126. Development of theory History doi: 10.2307/2787012, Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1999). The user-written program estout (Jann, 2007) was used to format the tables. 1. This indicates that respondents reward seniority and potential work experience. doi: 10.2307/2657396, Keywords: justice evaluations, just gender pay gap, gender inequalities, status beliefs, factorial survey, German-Germany, Citation: Sauer C (2020) Gender Bias in Justice Evaluations of Earnings: Evidence From Three Survey Experiments. Correlations of vignette dimensions for the population sample 2. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in Sauer, C., Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Liebig, S. (2011). doi: 10.1007/s11211-015-0256-4, Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Schupp, J. A just gender pay gap? (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 6, 440447. The pressure that men feel from their colleagues at work is frustrating because the men want to be on the top and show that they can rule dictate their terms. Thus, male and female students did not account for gender similarly in their justice evaluations as it would be the case when it was a status characteristic for both groups. In addition, the propaganda of feminism and denying men by women and stereotyping them by enemies of all women causes many conflicts between two genders which however have to live peacefully and in harmony. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Sauer, C. (2017). The gender pay gap can refer to differences in mean or median annual earnings, weekly earnings, or hourly wage. The respondents were randomly assigned to experimental splits. To test how actual inequality influences evaluations in the general population samples, the average earnings of full-time employees and the actual gender pay gap in different federal states in Germany were attached to the survey data7. The income students obtain for their monthly expenses is on average equal for female and male students (Isserstedt et al., 2010). Functionalism, Conflict Theory and Symbolic In a first step, I therefore investigate whether gender biases still differ between students and the general population, including additional analysis by age and educational groups, and in a second step, I analyze whether differences can be detected between employees working in German federal states with more or less gender inequality. Figure 2. The empirical analyses, therefore, draw on a sample of social sciences students and two population samples. However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. In other words, the existence, sign and size of a just gender wage gap is connected to the status value of this characteristic. Additionally, both female and male respondents in the population samples are assumed to have similar status beliefs about gender. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Introduction to (2009). This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. The second model in Table 6 provides the estimates for population sample 1. Table 4. Past and future applications of Jasso's justice theory. The study assumed that actual gender inequalities lead to biased referential structures that typically associate men with higher earnings. 9. 45, 332. Which theoretical perspective best explains your experience with Previous studies on reflexive justice find a gap between the evaluations of men and women, with men expecting higher wages than women (Liebig et al., 2011, 2012; Valet, 2018). J. Gender pay gap
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